GAMERTHEORY/McKenzieWark/Version2.0[Note:thistextiscompleteexceptforsomecorrectionsandadditionsmadetothefinalpageproof.]"Theunrealityofgamesgivesnoticethatrealityisnotyetreal.Unconsciouslytheyrehearsetherightlife."--TheodorAdorno"Thereisanabsoluteinthemomentofthegame;andthisabsolute,likeeveryrealityormomenttakentotheabsolute,representsaspecificformofalienation."--HenriLefebvreForFelix(andhisplaymates)LudeFeliciterGAMERTHEORY/McKenzieWark/Version2.0AcknowledgementsAgony(onTheCave(tm))Allegory(onTheSims)America(onCivilizationIII)Analog(onKatamariDamacy)Atopia(onViceCity)Battle(onRez)Boredom(onStateofEmergency)Complex(onDeusEx)Conclusions(onSimEarth)Cuts(listofsamples)AcknowledgementsFirstly,ImustthankalloftheparticipantsinGAM3R7H30RY,a'networkedbook'whichpresentedversion1.1ofthistextasapretextforcommentsanddiscussion.Forversion2.0,Imademanychangestothetextonthebasisofthecommentsofferedtherebygamers,theoryheads,mediahackersandother'organicintellectuals'ofthedigitalage.Aneditedselectionofthecommentspertainingdirectlytothetextareincludedamongthenotesattheend.Secondly,IwouldalsoliketothankTheInstitutefortheFutureoftheBookforhostingGAM3R7H30RYversion1.1,andformanystimulatingdiscussions.ItwouldnothavebeenhalfasmuchfunwithoutBobStein,BenVershbow,RayCha,DanViselandJesseWilbur.Thirdly,IwouldliketothankmystudentsatEugeneLangCollege.Computergamesareakeypartofthesharedculturefromwhichonecanbegintheprocess-aslaboriousasitisplayful-ofcreatingareflectiveandcrit
icalapproachtothetimes.MystudentsatLanghavebeenactiveparticipantsintheshapingoftheideasinthisbook.Anyremainingactsoffollyinthisbookaretobechargeddirectlytomyownaccount.Agony(onTheCave(tm))Fig.1001.Evergetthefeelingyouareplayingsomevastanduselessgametowhichyoudon'tknowthegoal,andcan'tremembertherules?Evergetthefiercedesiretoquit,toresign,toforfeit,onlytodiscoverthere'snoumpire,noreferee,noregulator,towhomtoannounceyourcapitulation?Evergetthevaguedreadthatwhileyouhavenochoicebuttoplaythegame,youcan'twinit,can'tevenknowthescore,orwhokeepsit?Eversuspectthatyoudon'tevenknowwhoyourrealopponentmightbe?Evergetmadovertheobviousfactthatthediceareloaded,thedeckstacked,thetablerigged,andthefix-in?Welcometogamespace.It'severywhere,thisatopianarena,thisspeculationsport.Nopainnogain.Nogutsnoglory.Giveityourbestshot.There'snosecondplace.Winnertakeall.Here'saheadsup:Ingamespace,evenifyouknowthedeal,areaplayer,havegotgame,youwillnotice,allthesame,thatthegamehasgotyou.Welcometothethunderdome.Welcometotheterrordome.Welcometothegreatestgameofall.Welcometotheplayoffs,thebigleague,themasters,theonlygameintown.Youareagamerwhetheryoulikeitornot,nowthatweallliveinagamespacethatiseverywhereandnowhere.AsMicrosoftsays:Wheredoyouwanttogotoday?Youcangoanywhereyouwantingamespacebutneverleaveit.002.SupposethereisabusinessinyourneighborhoodcalledTheCave(tm).Itoffers,foranhourlyfee,accesstogameconsolesinadarkenedroom.Supposeitispartofachain.Theconsolesformalocalareanetwork,andal
solinktoothersuchnetworkselsewhereinthechain.SupposeyouareagamerinTheCave(tm).Youtestyourskillsagainstothergamers.YouhaveplayedinTheCave(tm)sincechildhood.Youreyesseeonlythemonitorbeforeyou.Yourearshearonlythroughtheheadphonesthatencasethem.Yourhandsclutchonlythecontrollerwithwhichyoublastawayatthedigitalfigureswhoshootbackatyouonthescreen.Heregamersseetheimagesandhearthesoundsandsaytoeachother:"Why,theseimagesarejustshadows!Thesesoundsarejustechoes!Therealworldisouttheresomewhere."Theexistenceofanother,morerealworldofwhichTheCave(tm)providesmerecopiesisassumed,butnobodythinksmuchofit.HerereignsthewisdomofPlaystation:Liveinyourworld,playinours.003.Perhapsyouarenotjustanygamer.Perhapsyouwanttobreakwiththestereotype.Youaretheonewhodecidestoinvestigatetheassumptionofarealworldbeyondthegame.Youturnawayfromthescreenandunplugtheheadphones.Yougetupandstaggeroutofthedarkenedroom,towardthelightoutside.YouaresodazzledbythelightthatthepeopleandthingsoutthereinthebrightworldseemlessrealthantheimagesandsoundsofTheCave(tm).Youturnawayfromthisblindingnewworld,whichseems,strangely,unreal.YoureturntothescreenandtheheadphonesandthedarknessofbeingagamerinTheCave(tm).004.Supposesomeone,aparentmaybe,ateacherorsomeotherguardian,dragsyoubackoutintothelightandmakesyoustaythere.Itwouldstillbeblinding.Youcouldnotlookdirectlyatthings.Maybetheguardianprintsoutsomepicsofyourfamilyormaybeamapoftheneighborhood,toacclimatizeyou,beforeyoucanlookatthings.Graduallyyouseethepeopl
earoundyou,andwhatitisthattheydo.Thenperhapsyouremembertheimmense,immersivegamesofTheCave(tm),andwhatpassesforwisdomamongstthosestillstuckthere.AndsoyoureturntoTheCave(tm),totalkortexttotheothergamersaboutthisworldoutside.005.YoucommunicatetofellowgamersinTheCave(tm)abouttheoutsideworldofwhichTheCave(tm)isjustashadow.Ortryto.Plato:"Andifthecave-dwellershadestablished,downthereinthecave,certainprizesanddistinctionsforthosewhoweremostkeen-sightedinseeingthepassingshadows,andwhowerebestabletorememberwhatcamebefore,andafter,andsimultaneouslywithwhat,thusbestabletopredictfutureappearancesintheshadow-world,willourreleasedprisonerhankeraftertheseprizesorenvythispowerorhonor?"Youbet!TheCave(tm)isaworldofpureagon,ofcompetitivestrivingafterdistinction.Butsupposeyouarethatrare,stray,thoughtfulgamerwhodecidestotrythisnewgameofgettingbeyondthegameagain?SupposeyouemergefromTheCave(tm)anddecidetotakestockoftheworldbeyond?YoufindthatthisotherworldisinsomecuriouswaysratherlikeTheCave(tm).Thepicsoffamily,themapofthe'hood,seemmadeofthesamedigitalstuffasyourfavoritesgamesinsideTheCave(tm).Ifthereisadifference,itmaynotbequitewhatitseems.006.HereiswhatyouobserveabouttheworldoutsideTheCave(tm):Thewholeoflifeappearsasavastaccumulationofcommoditiesandspectacles,ofthingswrappedinimagesandimagessoldasthings.Buthowaretheseimagesandthingsorganized,andwhatroledotheycallforanyoneandeveryonetoadopttowardsthem?Imagesappealasprizes,andcallustoplaythegameinwhichtheyareallthatisa
tstake.Youobservethatworldafterworld,caveaftercave,whatprevailsisthesameagon,thesamedigitallogicofoneversustheother,endinginvictoryordefeat.Agonyrules!Everythinghasvalueonlywhenrankedagainstanother;everyonehasvalueonlywhenrankedagainstanother.Everysituationiswin-lose,unlessitiswin-win-asituationwhereplayersarefreetocollaborateonlybecausetheyseekprizesindifferentgames.Therealworldappearsasavideoarcadiadividedintomanyandvariedgames.Workisaratrace.Politicsisahorserace.Theeconomyisacasino.Eventheutopianjusticetocomeintheafterlifeisforeclosed:Hewhodieswiththemosttoyswins.Gamesarenolongerapastime,outsideoralongsideoflife.Theyarenowtheveryformoflife,anddeath,andtime,itself.Thesegamesarenojoke.Whenthescreenflashesthelegendgameover,youareeitherdead,ordefeated,oratbestoutofquarters.007.Thegamehascolonizeditsrivalswithintheculturalrealm,fromthespectacleofcinematothesimulationsoftelevision.Storiesnolongeropiateuswithimaginaryreconciliationsofrealproblems.Thestoryjustrecountsthestepsbywhichsomeonebeatsomeoneelse-arealvictoryforimaginarystakes.Theonlyoriginalscreengenreoftheearly21stcenturyisnotcalled'realityTV'fornothing.Brenton&Cohen:"Bysigningtheirreleaseforms,contestantsagreetoendupasstatistics,eachplayer'sfeelingsandactionsmanipulatedÉleadingtoinfidelity,tears,perhapsheartbreak."Sure,realityTVdoesn'tlooklikereality,butthenneitherdoesreality.Bothlooklikegames.Bothbecomeaseamlessspaceinwhichgamerstesttheirabilitieswithincontrivedscenarios.Thesituationsmay
beartificial,thedialoguelessthanspontaneous,andthegamersmaymerelybedoingwhattheproducerstellthem.Allthisisperfectlyofapiecewitharealitywhichisitselfanartificialarena,whereeveryoneisalreadyagamer,waitingfortheirturn.008.Thegamehasnotjustcolonizedreality,itisalsothesoleremainingideal.Gamespaceproclaimsitslegitimacythroughvictoryoverallrivals.Thereigningideologyimaginestheworldasalevelplayingfield,uponwhichallmenareequalbeforeGod,thegreatgamedesigner.History,politics,culture-gamespacedynamiteseverythingwhichisnotinthegame,likeanout-datedVegascasino.Everythingisevacuatedfromanemptyspaceandtimewhichnowappearsnatural,neutralandwithoutqualities-agamespace.Thelinesareclearlymarked.Everyactionisjustameanstoanend.Allthatcountsisthescore.Asforwhoownstheteamsandwhorunstheleague,bestnottoask.Asforwhoisexcludedfromthebigleaguesandhighscores,bestnottoask.Asforwhokeepsthescoreandwhomakestherules,bestnottoask.Asforwhatrulingbodydoesthehandicappingandonwhatbasis,bestnottoask.Allisforthebestinthebest-andonly-possibleworld.Thereis-togiveitaname-amilitaryentertainmentcomplex,anditrules.Itstriumphsaffirmnotjusttherulesofthegamebuttheruleofthegame.009.Everythingthemilitaryentertainmentcomplextoucheswithitsgoldplatedoutputjacksturnstodigits.Everythingisdigitalandyetthedigitalisasnothing.Nohumancantouchit,smellit,tasteit.Itjustbeepsandblinksandreportsitselfinglowingalphanumerics,spoutingstockquotesonyourcellphone.Sure,theremaybevivid3Dgraphics.Theremaybepiechartsandbar
graphs.Theremaybeswirlsandwhorlsofbrightlycoloredpolygonsblazingfromscreentoscreen.Butthesearejustdecoration.Thejitterofyourthumbonthebuttonortheflickerofyourwristonthemouseconnectdirectlytoaninvisible,intangiblegamespaceofpurecontest,pureagon.Itdoesn'tmatterifyourcavecomesequippedwithaPlaystationorBloombergterminal.Itdoesn'tmatterwhetheryouthinkyouareplayingthebondmarketorGrandTheftAuto.Itisalljustanalgorithmwithenoughunknownstomakeagameofit.010.Oncegamesrequiredanactualplacetoplaythem,whetheronthechessboardorthetenniscourt.Evenwarshadbattlefields.Nowglobalpositioningsatellitesgridthewholeearthandputallofspaceandtimeinplay.Warfare,theysay,nowlookslikevideogames.Welldon'tkidyourself.Warisavideogame-forthemilitaryentertainmentcomplex.Tothemitdoesn'tmatterwhathappens'ontheground'.Theground-theold-fashionedbattlefielditself-isjustanecessaryexternalitytothegame.SlavojZizek:"Itisthusnotthefantasyofapurelyasepticwarrunasavideogamebehindcomputerscreensthatprotectsusfromtherealityofthefacetofacekillingofanotherperson;onthecontraryitisthisfantasyoffacetofaceencounterwithanenemykilledbloodilythatweconstructinordertoescapetheRealofthedepersonalizedwarturnedintoananonymoustechnologicaloperation."Eventhesoldierwhoseinadequatearmorfailedhim,shotdeadinanalleybyasniper,hashisdeath,likehislife,managedbyacomputerinablipoflogistics.011.Theoldclassantagonismshavenotgoneaway,butarehiddenbeneathlevelsofrank,whereeachagonizesovertheirworthagainstothersasmeasuredbythe
priceoftheirhouse,thesizeoftheirvehicleandwhere,perversely,workinglongerandlongerhoursisasignofwinningthegame.Workbecomesplay.Workdemandsnotjustone'smindandbodybutalsoone'ssoul.Youhavetobeateamplayer.Yourworkhastobecreative,inventive,playful-ludic,butnotludicrous.Workbecomesagamespace,butnogamesarefreelychosenanymore.Notleastforchildren,whoiftheyaretobethewinsomeoffspringofwin-allparents,findthemselvesdraftedintoendlesseveningshiftsofteamsport.Thepurposeofwhichistobuildcharacter.Whichcharacter?Thecharacterofthegoodsport.Characterforwhat?Fortheworkplace,withitsteamcamaraderieandpeerenforceddiscipline.Forothers,workisstilljustdull,repetitivework,butthedreamistoescapeintothecommerceofplay-tomakeitintothemajorleagues,orcompeteforrecorddealsasadivaoraplayaintherapgame.Andforstillothers,thereisonlythegameofsurvival.Biggie:"Eitheryou'reslingin'crackrockoryougotawickedjumpshot."Playbecomeseverythingtowhichitwasonceopposed.Itiswork,itisserious,itismorality,itisnecessity.012.Theoldidentitiesfadeaway.Nobodyhasthetime.Thegamerisnotinterestedinplayingthecitizen.ThelawisfineasaspectatorsportonCourtTV,butbeingacitizenjustinvolvesyouinendlessattemptstogetoutofjuryduty.Gotaproblem?TellittoJudgeJudy.Thegamerelectstochoosesidesonlyforthepurposeofthegame.ThisweekitmightbeastheGermansvs.theAmericans.Nextweekitmightbeasagangsteragainstthelaw.Ifthegamerchoosestobeasoldierandplaywithrealweapons,itisasanArmyofOne,testingandrefiningpersonalskillpoints.Theshrillandconsta
ntpatrioticnoiseyouhearthroughthespeakersmaskstheslowerosionofanycoherentfellowfeelingwithintheremnantsofnationalborders.Thisgamespaceescapesallcheckpoints.ItisanAmericawithoutqualities,foreveryoneandnobody.Allthatisleftofthenationisaneverywherethatisnowhere,anatopiaofnoisy,righteousvictoriesandquiet,sinisterfailures.Manifestdestiny-therighttorulethroughvirtue-giveswaytoitslatentdestiny-thevirtueofrightthroughrule.Civicvirtuedrownsinahurricaneofmeresurvivalism.013.Thegamerisnotreallyinterestedinfaith,althoughaheightenedrhetoricoffaithmayfillthevoidcarvedoutofthesoulbytheinsinuationsofgamespace.Thegamer'sGodisagamedesigner.Heimplantsineverythingahiddenalgorithm.Faithisamatteroftheintelligencetointuittheparametersofthisgeekdesignandscoreaccordingly.Allthatisrighteouswins;allthatwinsisrighteous.Tobealoseroralameristhemarkofdamnation.Whenyouareagamer,youareleftwithnothingtobelieveinbutyourownGod-givenabilities.Gamersconfronteachotheringamesofskillwhichrevealwhohasbeenchosenbythegameastheonewhohasmostfullyinternalizeditsalgorithm.Forthosewhodespairoftheirabilities,therearegamesofchance,wheregracerevealsitselfintherollofthedice.RogerCaillois:"Chanceiscourtedbecausehardworkandpersonalqualificationsarepowerlesstobringsuchsuccessabout."Thegamblermayknowwhatthegamer'sfaithrefusestocountenance.014.Outsideeachcaveisanothercave;beyondthegameisanothergame.Eachhasitsparticularrules;eachhasitsranksofhighscores.Isthatallthereis?Thegamerwholiftsaneyefromthetarge
trisksaparalyzingboredom.PaoloVirno:"Atthebaseofcontemporarycynicismisthefactthatmenandwomenlearnbyexperiencingrulesratherthan'facts'...Learningtherules,however,alsomeansrecognizingtheirunfoundednessandconventionalityÉ.Wenowfaceseveraldifferent'games',eachdevoidofallobviousnessandseriousness,onlythesiteofanimmediateself-affirmation--anaffirmationthatismuchmorebrutalandarrogant,muchmorecynical,themoreweemploy,withnoillusionsbutwithperfectmomentaryadherence,thoseveryruleswhoseconventionalityandmutabilitywehaveperceived."Eachgameendsinasummarydecision:That'sHot!Orifnot,You'reFired!GotquestionsaboutqualitiesofBeing?Whatever.015.Sothisistheworldasitappearstothegamer:amatrixofendlesslyvaryinggames-agamespace-allreducibletothesameprinciples,allproducingthesamekindofsubjectwhobelongstothisgamespaceinthesameway-asagamertoagame.Whatwoulditmeantoliftone'seyefromthetarget,topauseonthetrigger,tounclenchone'sever-clickingfinger?IsitevenpossibletothinkoutsideTheCave(tm)?Perhapswiththetriumphofgamespace,whatthegamerastheoristneedsistoreconstructthedeletedfilesonthosewhothoughtpureplaycouldbearadicaloption,whoopposedgamespacewiththeirrevolutionaryplaydates.TheSituationists,forexample.RaoulVaneigem:"SubversionÉisanallembracingreinsertionofthingsintoplay.Itistheactwherebyplaygraspsandreunitesbeingsandthingshithertofrozensolidinahierarchyoffragments."Play,yes,butthegame-no.GuyDebord:"IhavescarcelybeguntomakeyouunderstandthatIdon'tintendtoplaythegame."Nowtherewasap
layerunconcernedwithanexitstrategy.016.'Play'wasonceagreatsloganofliberation.RichardNeville:"Thenewbeautifulfreakswillteachusallhowtoplayagain(andthey'llsuffersociety'spenalty)."PlaywasoncethebatteringramtobreakdowntheChinesewallsofalienatedwork,ofdividedlabor.Onlylookatwhathasbecomeofplay.Playisnolongeracountertowork.Playbecomeswork;workbecomesplay.Playoutsideofworkfounditselfcapturedbytheriseofthedigitalgame,whichrespondstotheboredomoftheplayerwithendlessroundsofrepetition,levelafterlevelofdifferenceasmoreofthesame.Playnolongerfunctionsasafoilforacriticaltheory.Theutopiandreamofliberatingplayfromthegame,ofapureplaybeyondthegame,merelyopenedthewayfortheextensionofgamespaceintoeveryaspectofeverydaylife.Whilethecounter-culturewantedworldsofplayoutsidethegame;themilitaryentertainmentcomplexcounteredinturnbyexpandingthegametothewholeworld,containingplayforeverwithinit.017.Evencriticaltheory,whichoncetookitsdistancefromdamagedlife,becomesanothergame.Applytotoprankedschools.Findagoodcoach.Pickarisingsubfield.Proveyourabilities.Getyourselfpublished.Getsomegrants.Getajob.Getanotherjoboffertoestablishyourlevelandbargainwithyourcurrentemployer.Keepyournosecleanandgettenure.Youwon!Nowyoucanplay!Nowyoucandowhatyouwanted,secretly,allthoseyearsagoÉOnlynowyoucan'tremember.Youbecameawin-winSituationist.Yourcriticaltheorybecamehypocriticaltheory.Itisagainsteverythinginthewholewideworldexceptthegamespacethatmadeitpossible.Butgamespaceisnowtheveryformoftheworld,
andthisworldeludedyourthoughtevenasitbroughthometheglitteringprizes.Itisgamespacethatwon.Thehypocriticaltheorist,inanagonyoffitfulsleep,dreamsofmeetingtheghostofGuyDebord,andproudlycitesalistofachievements:IvyLeaguejob,bookdeals,grants,promotion,tenure,recognitionwithinthehighestranksofthedisciplinaryguild.TheghostofDebordsighs:"Solittleambitioninonesoyoung."018.Whatthenhasthegamerseeninthatbrightworld,thatgamespace,beyondTheCave(tm)?Youseepeoplehunchedoverscreens,theirhandscompulsivelyjerkingcontrollers.Eachsitsalone,andtalksortextstounseenothers,dazzledbyimagesthatseemtocomefromnowhere,awashinpulsingandbeepingsounds.Nooneouthereinthe'realworld'reallylooksallthatdifferenttothestereotypicalgamer,thumbjitteringonthecontroller.Nowyouareanenlightenedgamer,youseehowtheworldbeyondthegamesofTheCave(tm)seemslikeanarrayofmoreorlesssimilarcaves,alldigital,eachanagonwithitsownrules,somearbitraryblendofchanceandcompetition.Andbeyondthat?Notmuch.Therealhasbecomeamereepiphenomenonwithoutwhichgamespacecannotexist,butwhichislosing,bitbybit,anyformorsubstanceorspiritorhistorythatisnotsuckedintoandtransformedbygamespace.Beyondgamespaceappearonlythespentfragmentsofnamelessforms.019.GamertheorystartswiththesuspensionoftheassumptionsofTheCave(tm),thatthereisamorerealworldbeyondit,somewhere,andthatsomeone-somepriestorprofessor-knowswhereitis.Thegamerarrivesatthebeginningsofareflectivelife,agamertheory,bysteppingoutofTheCave(tm)--andreturningtoit.(SeeFig.1)Ifthegame
ristoholdgamespacetoaccountintermsofsomethingotherthanitself,itmightnotbethatmereshadowofashadowofthereal,murky,formless,thatlurkslikearesidueinthecorners.Itmightinsteadbethegameproper,asitisplayedinTheCave.(tm)GrandTheftAuto,maybe,orDeusEx.Hereatleastthegameshadowstheidealformofthealgorithm.Hereatleastthedigitallogictowhichgamespacemerelyaspiresisactuallyrealized.Thechallengeis-ah,buteventophraseitthusistoacknowledgethegame-toplayatplayitself,butfromwithinthegame.Thegamerastheoristhastochoosebetweentwostrategiesforplayingagainstgamespace.Oneistoplayforthereal.(Taketheredpill).Buttherealseemsnothingbutaheapofbrokenimages.Theotheristoplayforthegame(Takethebluepill).Playwithinthegame,butagainstgamespace.Beludic,butalsolucid.020.Foragamertobeatheoristmightnotrequiretheabilitytoplayanyparticulargameespeciallywell.Theprizeshavenothingtodowiththinkingthegame.Normightitbetheabilitytodismissthegameasunrealinthenameofsomesupposedlymoresolidlygroundedoutside.What?Theseluminouspixelsarenotreal,yousay?Thenneitherisyourworld.Ifanything,TheCave(tm)seemstobewheretheforms,theideas,theabstractionsbehindthemereappearanceofthingsintheoutsideworldcanbefound.Whethergamespaceismorerealornotthansomeotherworldisnotthequestion.Thateveninitsunrealityitmayhaverealeffectsonotherworlds-is.Gamesarenotrepresentationsofthisworld.Theyaremorelikeallegoriesofaworldmadeoverasgamespace.Theyencodetheabstractprinciplesuponwhichdecisionsabouttherealnessofthisorthatworldaredecided.021
.Hereistheguidingprincipleofafutureutopia,nowlongpast:"Toeachaccordingtohisneeds;fromeachaccordingtohisabilities."Ingamespace,whatdowehave?Anatopia,aplaceless,senselessrealm,wherequiteadifferentmaximrules:"Fromeachaccordingtotheirabilities-toeacharankandscore."Needsnolongerenterintoit.Notevendesirematters.Uncriticalgamersdonotwinwhattheydesire;theydesirewhattheywin.Thescoreisthething.Therestisagony.Thegamerastheoristatfirstsightseemstohaveacquiredanabilitythatcountsfornothingingamespace.Thegamerastheoristmightbeginwithanindifferencetodistinction,toallthatthegamespaceprizes.Youdoesnotplaythegametowin(ornotjusttowin).Youtriflewithit-playingwithstyletounderstandthegameasaform.Youtriflewiththegametounderstandthenatureofgamespaceasaworld-astheworld.Youtriflewiththegametodiscoverinwhatwaygamespacefallsshortofitsself-proclaimedperfection.Thedigitalgameplaysupeverythingthatgamespacemerelypretendstobe:afairfight,alevelplayingfield,freecompetition.022.Nowonderdigitalgamesaretheemergentculturalformofthetimes.Thetimeshavethemselvesbecomejustaseriesoflessandlessperfectgames.TheCave(tm)presentsgamesinapurestate,asarealmwherejustice-ofasort-reigns.Thebeginningsofacriticaltheoryofgames-agamertheory-mightlienotinholdinggamesaccountableasfailedrepresentationsoftheworld,butquitethereverse.Theworldoutsideisagamespacethatappearsasanimperfectformofthecomputergame.ThegamerisanarcheologistofTheCave(tm).Thecomputergamesthegamerfindstherearetheruins,notofalostpast,butof
alostfuture.Gamespaceisbuiltontheruinsofafutureitproclaimsintheoryyetdisavowsinpractice.Totheextentthatthegamerastheoristwantstohackor'mod'thegame,itistoplayevenmoreintimatelywithinit.Thegamerastheoristisnotouttobreakthegame.Thepointisnottoreducethegametotheleveloftheimperfectworldoutsideit.Likeanyarcheologist,thegamerastheoristtreatstheseruinsofthefuturewithobsessivecareandattentiontotheirpreservation,nottheirdestruction.023.Gamespaceneedstheorists-butalsoanewkindofpractice.Onethatcanbreakdownthelinethatdividesgamerfromdesigner,toredeploythedigitalsothatitmakesthisverydistinctionarbitrary.Itisacharacteristicofgamestorenderdigitaldecisionsonallshadesofdifference.Oneeitherwinsorloses.Oneeitherhitsormisses.Thepracticeofthegamerastheoristmightbetoreinstallwhatisundecidablebackintothegamespacewhoseprimaryviolencehasnothingtodowithbrightlycoloredexplosionsormountingdeathcounts,butwiththedecisionbydigitalfiatonwhereeverythingbelongsandhowitisranked.LarsSvendsen:"Howboringlifewouldbewithoutviolence!"Therealviolenceofgamespaceisitsdicingofeverythinganalogintothedigital,cuttingcontinuumsintobits.Thatgamespresentthedigitalinitsmostpureformarereasonenoughtoembracethem,forhereviolenceisatitsmostextreme-anditsmostharmless.024.Ofallthekindsofbelongingthatcontendforallegiance-asworkersagainsttheboss,ascitizensagainsttheenemy,asbelieversagainsttheinfidel-allnowhavetocompetewithonewhichmakesagonitsfirstandonlyprinciple.Gamespacewantsusalltobelievewearenothingbu
tgamersnow,competingnotagainstenemiesofclassorfaithornation,butonlyagainstothergamers.Anewhistoricalpersonastalkstheearth.Alloftheprevioussuchpersonahadmanybreviariesandmanuals,andsothislittlebookseekstoofferguidanceforthinkingwithinthisnewpersona.AnABCoftheoryforgamers.Notastrategyguide,acheatsheetorawalk-throughforhowtoimproveone'sscoreorhoneone'striggerfinger.Aprimer,rather,inthinkingaboutaworldmadeoverasagamespace,madeoverasanimperfectcopyofthegame.Thegamemightnotbeutopia,butitmightbetheonlythingleftwithwhichtoplayagainstgamespace.025.NowondergamerschoosetospendtheirtimeholedupinTheCave(tm).Hereatleastthetargetsreallyareonlypolygons,andtheprizesreallyareworthless,merecolorsandnumbers.Thesearenottheleastofitsmerits.AndyetTheCave(tm)isaworldyoucanneitherownnorcontrol.Eventhissubstituteforutopiaisinsomeoneelse'spossession.Thedigitalgameisbothanalmostutopianalternativetogamespaceanditsmostpureproduct.Orwas.Perhapsthegameiscollapsingbackintobusinessasusual.Perhapsthesingle-playergamewillbecomeananachronism,supercededbymultiplayerworldsasvenalandbenightedastherestofgamespace.Perhaps,likesilentcinema,thestand-alonegamewillbeanorphanedform.PerhapsgamedesignerssuchasWillWrightandTetsuyaMizogushiwillbetheSergeiEisensteinsandDzigaVertovsofalostart.Perhaps,inthismomentofeclipse,theclassicgameshavesomethingtoshowus.Sobyallmeansnecessary,beagamer,butbeagamerwhothinks-andacts-withaviewtorealizingtherealpotentialsofthegame,inandagainstthisworldmadeoverasag
amespace.Onemightstartwiththecuriousgapbetweenthegamesonelovesandaneverydaylifewhich,bythelightofthegame,seemscuriouslysimilar,andyetsomehowlacking.Allegory(onTheSims)Fig.2026.Benjamingetsupinthemorning.Hegoestothetoilet.Heleavestheseatup.Heshowersandfixesbreakfast.Hereadsthepaper.Hefindsajob-asaTestSubject-startingtomorrow.It'snotmuch,buttimesarehard.Hereadsabook,andthenanother.Hefixeslunch,naps,readsagain.Hegoestobed.Hegetsup.Toilet,shower,breakfastagain.Hedoesnotmakehisbed.Hegoestowork.Hecomeshome,preparesanothermeal.HetalkstohisroommateBertabit.Hannahdropsby.Heflirtswithhersome.Hegoestobed,getsup,doesthewholethingalloveragain.027.Daysgoby.Notmuchchanges.Hiscookingimproves.Hemakesnewfriends-Ted,Gersholm,Asja.Theydropbysometimes;sometimeshevisits.Thereisthenewfurniture.Thatmakeshimabithappier,butnotmuch.HegetsapromotiontoLabAssistant.It'sthenightshift,butthepayisbetter.ThenhemakesFieldResearcherandisbackworkingregularhours.AfterawhilehebecomesaScholar.Heissocreative,butithelpstohavefriendsifyouwanttogetahead.HeaspirestobeingaTheorist.Thepayisbetter.Andthehours.HedreamsofyachtsandbigscreenTVs.BenjaminisaSim,acharacterinagamecalledTheSims.Onecouldbeforgivenforimaginingthiswassomebody'slife.028.InTheSims,youcreatecharacterslikeBenjamin,buildandfurnishhomesforthem,findthemjobsandfriends.Allinaworldwithoutasky.PerhapsagamelikeTheSimscouldbeaparodyofeverydaylifein'consumersociety'.Benjaminandhisfriendsdreamofthings.Thingsmakethemhappy.Theyfindanice
sofasomuchmorerelaxingthanacheapone.Asthegame'sdesignerWillWrightsays:"Ifyousitthereandbuildabigmansionthat'sallfullofstuff,withoutcheating,yourealizethatalltheseobjectsendupsuckingupallyourtime,whenalltheseobjectshadbeenpromisingtosaveyoutime.ÉAndit'sactuallykindofaparodyofconsumerism,inwhichatsomepointyourstufftakesoveryourlife."Othersdisagree.GamescholarGonzaloFrasca:"Certainly,thegamemaybemakingfunofsuburbanAmericans,butsinceitrewardstheplayereverytimeshebuysnewstuff,Idonotthinkthiscouldbeconsideredparody."InTheSims,characterscanhavelotsofdifferentjobs,butasFredricJamesonsays:"parodyfindsitselfwithoutavocation"029.PerhapsagamelikeTheSimscouldbeanallegoryforeverydaylifeingamespace.Intheallegoricalmode,saysWalterBenjamin:"Anyperson,anyobject,anyrelationshipcanmeanabsolutelyanythingelse.Withthispossibilityadestructivebutjustverdictcanbepassedontheprofaneworld:itischaracterizedasaworldinwhichthedetailisofnogreatimportance."ForBenjamin,thefragmentingofthemodernworldbytechnique,theprofusionofcommoditiesthatwellupintheabsenceofacoherentwhole,findsitsexpressioninallegory,whichfragmentsthingsstillfurther,shatteringtheillusionofbourgeoisorder,revealingthemeansbywhichitismade."Whatresiststhemendacioustransfigurationofthecommodityworldisitsdistortionintoallegory."Andyetthispossibilitytooseemsexhausted.ThefragmentingofthefragmentedseemsroutinetoaSim.Nootherworldseemspossible.030.PerhapsagamelikeTheSimsisnotjustanallegorybutalsoan'allegorithm.'Tobeagamer
isaslightlydifferentpersonatobeingareaderoraviewer.LevManovich:"Astheplayerproceedsthroughthegame,shegraduallydiscoverstherulesthatoperateintheuniverseconstructedbythisgame."AlexGalloway:"Toplaythegamemeanstoplaythecodeofthegame.Towinmeanstoknowthesystem.Andthustointerpretagamemeanstointerpretitsalgorithm(todiscoveritsparallelallegorithm)."Whatisdistinctiveaboutgamesisthattheyproduceforthegameranintuitiverelationtothealgorithm.Theintuitiveexperienceandtheorganizingalgorithmtogetherareanallegorithmforafuturethatingamespaceisforeverpromisedbutnevercomestopass.Theallegorithmbywhichthegamerrelatestothealgorithmproducesaquiteparticularallegorybywhichgamerandalgorithmtogetherrelatetogamespace.Inagameanycharacter,anyobject,anyrelationshipcanbegivenavalue,andthatvaluecanbediscovered.Withthispossibilityachallengingbutfairverdictcanbepassedontheprofaneworld:itischaracterizedasaworldinwhichanyvalueisarbitrary,yetitsvalueanditsrelationtoothervaluescanbediscoveredthroughtrialanderror.031.Analgorithm-forcurrentpurposes-isafinitesetofinstructionsforaccomplishingsometask,whichtransformsaninitialstartingconditionintoarecognizableendcondition.GregCostikyan:"Algorithmicgamesareonesinwhichunderlyingcalculationsorrulesdeterminethegame'sresponsetotheplayer'sinput."TherecipesthatBenjaminandotherSimslearnfromthecookbooksontheirbookshelvesarealgorithms.Benjamin'scareerasaTheoristisalsoanalgorithm.Thereisastartcondition:hemusthave8friends,4charismapoints,a7increativity,
andsoon.Ithasendconditions,too.With10friends,5charismapointsand10forcreativity,theTheoristcareercanend,andanotherbegin.Thegamerselectsonesequenceafteranother,andgraduallylearnswhattheydo-that'salgorithm.Thegamerdiscoversarelationshipbetweenappearancesandalgorithminthegamewhichisadoubleoftherelationbetweenappearancesandaputativealgorithmingamespace-that'sallegorithm.(SeeFig.2)Butthereisalwaysagapbetweentheintuitivelyknowablealgorithmofthegameandthepassing,uneven,unfairsemblanceofanalgorithmintheeverydaylifeofgamespace-thisistheformthatallegorynowtakes.032.Theimagesandstoriesthatpopulategamesaremostlycribbedfromsomeothermedia,fromnovels,filmsortelevision.Gamesmostlyjustrecycle,or'remediate',bitsofrepresentationfromothermedia.Bolter&Grusin:"remediationisadefiningcharacteristicofthenewdigitalmedia."Andhencenotspecifictogames.Fromthepointofviewofrepresentation,thegameisalwaysinadequatetoeverydaylife.ASiminTheSimsisasimpleanimatedcharacter,withfewfacialfeaturesorexpressions.InTheSims2theyseemalittlemorelifelike,buttheimprovementoftherepresentationinsomeparticularwaysonlyraisesthestandardsbywhichitappearstofallshortinothers.Fromthepointofviewofallegorithm,itallseemsmoretheotherwayaround.Everydaylifeingamespaceseemsanimperfectversionofthegame.Thegamespaceofeverydaylifemaybemorecomplexandvariegated,butitseemsmuchlessconsistent,coherentandfair.Perhapsthiswasalwaystheatopianpromiseofthedigital-arealofabsolute,impersonalequityandequanimity.Thegameopensacri
ticalgapbetweenwhatgamespacepromisesandwhatitdelivers.Whatistrueisnotreal;whatisrealisnottrue.Thisiswhatthedoublemovementofallegorithmandallegoryhavetoreport.Thegameistrueinthatitsalgorithmisconsistent,butthisveryconsistencynegatesaworldthatisnot.033.ImaginethatBenjamin,ourcharacterinTheSims,makesittothepenultimatelevelandbecomesaTheorist.Perhapsthenyoubuyhimacomputerbecauseheseemsboredwithreading.Whatwouldhedowithit?PlayTheSims,ofcourse.BeingaTheorist,perhapshestartstothinkaboutit.Perhapshejotssomethinglikethisinhisnotebook:"Thegamerwhoselistlessgazefallsonthecontrollerinhishandisreadyfortheallegorithm.Boredomisthebasisoftheallegorithmicinsightintotheworld.Boredomlayswastetotheappealofthegameasgame,andcallsattentiontotheambiguousrelationofgametogamespace.Allegorithmicperceptionisn-dimensional,itintuitsbehindappearancesinteractionsofmanyvariables.Theallegorithmicmodeofapprehensionisalwaysbuiltonanevaluativerelationtotheworldofappearances.Moreandmorerelentlessly,theeverydaylifeofgamersiscomingtoweartheexpressionofgamespace.Atthesametime,gamespaceseekstodisguisetheungamelikecharacterofthings.Whatheightensthemendacioustransformationofgamespaceisitsappearanceinanundistortedforminthegame.Still,gamespacewantstolookitselfintheface.Itcelebratesitsincarnationinthegamer."034.Inthegamer,Benjaminmightsay,isrebornthesortofidlerthatSocratespickedoutfromtheAthenianmarketplacetobehisinterlocutor."Only,thereisnolongeraSocrates,sothereisnoonetoaddresstheidler.An
dtheslavelaborthatguaranteedhimhisleisurehaslikewiseceasedtoexist."InTheSims,asingamespace,onewondersiftheidlerhasdisappearedalso.ThereisnoidletimeinTheSims,orinthegamespaceofwhichitisthemoreperfectdouble.ThequartzheartofthecomputeronwhichTheSimsrunsticksoverremorselessly.Allofitsmomentsareequivalent,andsotoo,inaway,areallmomentsinTheSims.Sleeping,napping,conversationorreadingalladvanceone'sscores.Benjaminhastogotobedtogetupagaintogotoworktoearntherighttosleep,anddream,again.035.Tobeagameristocometounderstandingthroughquantifiablefailure.ThebargraphsmeasuringBenjamin'sbeingtrendnegativeandrefusetobudge.YouaretoobusyelsewheretogetBenjamintothetoiletontime,andhepeeshimself.Heneedssleep,heneedslove,heneedsanewkitchen.Heturnstofaceyou,thegamer,andgestureswildly,asifcursinghisGod.Whenthingsweregoingwell,youforgottosavethegame,sothereisnobettertimetogobackto.Nothingforitbuttoworkwithwhatyouhave,orquitandstartagain.Thegameisaknowablealgorithmfromwhichyouknowyoucanescape;gamespaceisanunknownalgorithmfromwhichthereisnoescape.Thegameisjustlikethegamespaceofeverydaylife,exceptthatthegamecanovercometheviolenceoftime.Thegametiesupthatonelooseendwithwhichgamespacestruggles-themortalflawofanirreversibletime.NowondertheSimturnsinvaintothegamerasaGod,foritisthegamerwhohasturnedtowardthegameasamessianic,reversibletime.036.GamersarenotalwaysgoodGods.It'ssuchatemptationtosetupaSimtosuffer.Deprivethemofaknowledgeofcookingandprettysoontheysetfiretothemselves.Buildah
ousewithoutdoorsorwindowsandtheystarve.Watchasthealgorithmworksitselfouttoitsterminalstate,thebargraphsslidingdowntonothing.Thisviolenceisnot'real'.Simsarenotpeople.Theyareimages.Theyareimagesinaworldwhichappearsasavastaccumulationofimages.Hencethepleasureindestroyingimages,todemonstrateagainandagaintheirworthlessness.Theycanmeananythingandnothing.Theyhavenosavingpower.Buteventhoughtheimagesaremeaningless,thealgorithmstillfunctions.Itassigns,ifnotmeaning,ifnotveracity,ifnotnecessity,thenatleastascoretorepresentations.InTheSimstheworldofgamespaceisredeemedbyprovidingforitsmyriadthingsthealgorithmthattheylacktoformconsistentrelations.037.TheSimwhosuffersturnstofaceitsgamer,lookingouttowardanabsentsky,appealingdirectly,beyondtheframeofthegameitself.Thegamermaynotanswer,ormaynotbeabletoanswer.ThegamerasGodsuffersfromanapparentlysimilaralgorithmiclogicastheSim.TheSimscomeswiththeologicaloptions.Turnon'freewill'andSimsstrayfromthepowersoftheirmaker.Turnitoffandtheiractionsarepredestined,butevenso,thegamer-godquicklyfindsthatthealgorithmisahigherpowerthatthepoweronecommands.ShouldthegamebegoingbadlyfortheSim,itturnstofacethegamer;shouldthegamebegoingbadlyforthegamer,thereisnooneforthegamertoturnawayandface.TheSimwhoaddressesahelpless,hopelessorlostGodlivesouttheallegoryofgamespaceitself.AtleasttheSimhassomeonetoturnto.Whocanthegamerturnto?Perhapsyoucanseenowthereasonforthepopularity,amongthosetroubledbygamespacebutlackingaconcepttoaccountforit,ofapers
onalGodwhocanperformmiracles,whocanbreaktherulesofHisownalgorithm.038.Asagameryoucanhavenosenseofworthandnofaithinsalvationotherthanthroughyourownefforts.Butthoseeffortsarefraught,andyouaresoonlostinthemazeofthegame.Thegamerachievesworththroughvictoriesofcharacter;butthatcharacterinevitablyfacesdefeatinturn.Orworse.Theonlythingworsethanbeingdefeatedisbeingundefeated.Forthenthereisnothingagainstwhichtosecuretheworthofthegamerotherthantofindanothergame.Onegameleadstothenext.It'sthesameforBenjamin.AfterTheoristcomesMadScientistandafterthat-nothing.Startover.Pickanewcareer.Getanexpansionpack.Trysomenewlives.StartasaPlaygroundMonitor,becomeaTeacher,aProfessor,gettenure,risetoDean,thefinally,MinisterofEducation.StartasaNobody,workingfortips.BecomeanInsider,aNameDropper,aSellOut,aPlayer,aCelebrity,thenfinally,aSuperstar.Butthesearejustarbitrarynamesforseriesoflevels.Anyqualitativedifferencebetweenlevelsisjustaneffectofanunderlyingquantity.Ahigherlevelisessentiallymorethanalowerlevel.Andsothere'snowheretogobuttomore,andmore,untilthereisnomore,andthegamer,likethecharacter,isleftwithnothing.Thefruitofthedigitalistheexpulsionofqualityfromtheworld.That'sgamespace.Theconsolationofthegameisthatatleastthisexpulsionisabsolute.039.OriginalSimscanbeanymixoftwogendersandthreecolors.InTheSims2youstartwithpresettemplates(Caucasian,AfricanAmerican,Chinese,Persian-andElf)alterableviaalotofsub-sliders.Youchoosegender,age,color,hairstyleandcolor,eyecolor,weight,height,
glasses,hats,accessories,clothes,andsoon,buttheseexternalattributesaremerelyaskin.Theydonotreallyaffectthegame.Theslidingvariablesofcharacter,however,doprograminadvancewhatcareersaSimcanexcelat,andwhichpasttimesrestorefaculties.InSims2,theymaybestraightorgay.Again,itmakesnodifference.Eitherwaytheiroffspringmixthe'genetic'characterqualitiesoftheirparents.Theexternalrepresentationsareofnoaccount;theinternalvariablesdeterminepotential.The'skin'isarbitrary,adifferencewithoutadistinction,meredecoration.Underneathitliesacodewhichisall.TheSims2iscommittedbothtoageneticviewofintrinsicnatureandaliberalviewoftheequality,andhenceindifference,ofextrinsicappearances.040.InTheSims,thingsproliferate.Orrather,theskinsofthings.Youcanhavemanydifferentkindsofsofa,orcoffeetable,orlampshade,butthemeterisrunning,sotospeak.Youhavetomakemoremoneytobuymorethings.ButsomegamerswhoplayTheSimstriflewiththegameratherthanplayit.Thesegamersarenotinterestedin'winning'thegame,theyareinterestedindetails,infurniture,ortellingstories,orcreatinginterestingworlds.Ifacheatissomeonewhoignoresthespaceofagametocutstraighttoitsobjective,thenthetriflerissomeonewhoignorestheobjectivetolingerwithinitsspace.BernardSuits:"Triflersrecognizerulesbutnotgoals,cheatsrecognizegoalsbutnotrules."TheSimslendsitselftoplaythattransformsitfromaworldofnumberbacktoaworldofmeaning.Algorithmbecomesamorestableplatformthanthevicissitudesofgamespaceforcreatingasuburbanworldofprettythings.Butintriflingwiththegam
e,thegamerstrugglestoescapeboredomandproducedifference-andfindsthatthistoohaslimits.StevenPoole:"Youmustlearnthesequencestheprogrammershavebuiltintothegame-and,okay,therearehundredsofthem,butthatdoesnotconstitutefreedom."Gamesredeemgamespacebyofferingaperfectunfreedom,aconsistentsetofconstraints.041.Allegoryisabouttherelationofsigntosign;allegorithmisabouttherelationofsigntonumber.Signsdon'topentorevealchainsofothersigns,pointinginalldirections.Orrather,itisnolongerofanyimportancewhatsignsreveal.Theybillowandfloat,poolandgather,arbitraryanduseless.Thereisnowaytoredeemthem.Butsignsnowpointtosomethingelse.Theypointtonumber.Andnumberinturnpointstothealgorithm,whichtransformsonenumberintoanother.Outofthebitrotofsigns,gamesmakeallegorithms.Thesignspointtonumbers,thenumberstoalgorithms,thealgorithmstoallegorithmsofeverydaylifeingamespace,wheresignslikewisearedevalued,arbitrary,butcanstillstandasallegoriesoftheonethingthatstillmakessense,forthelogicofthedigital.042.Allegorybecomesadoublerelation:ontheoneside,thereistherelationofgamertoalgorithminthegame,itsallegorithm;ontheother,thereistherelationofallegorithmtoeverydaylifeingamespace.Inrelationtogamespace,thegameitselfworksasanescapefromtheagonyofeverydaylife,wherethestakesarerealanduncertain,totheunrealstakesofapuregame.Butthegamecanalsoworkasacritique,inturn,oftheunrealityofthestakesofgamespaceitself.WhenSimsdevoteesassignvaluestonon-existentfurniture,trulytheideaofeconomic'utility'haslostallmeanin
g.Thegamecanalsoworkasanatopia,whereplayisfreefromwork,fromnecessity,fromseriousness,frommorality.KillyourSims,ifyouwantto.Playherehasnolawbutthealgorithm.Andyetthereisatensionbetweenthegameandgamespace.Therelationbetweenthemisatonceanaloganddigital,bothacontinuumandasharpbreak.Thegamerstrugglestomakeofthegameaseparateworld,forescape,forcritique,foratopianplay,andyetgamespaceinsinuatesitselfintothegame.043.Startover:BenjaminbeginsasaBetaTester,becomesaHacker,andfinallyaGameDesigner.AfterthatyouaresupposedtoleveluptoVentureCapitalistthenfinallyInformationOverlord.Butsomethinggoeswrongalongtheway.Benjamin'sgamedesigncompanygoesbroke.Thewholeindustryisconsolidating.SoBenjamingoestoworkforamuchbiggergamecompany.Hestartswork.It'samildsortof'crunch'time-normalwhenthere'saprojectwithadeadline.Benjaminisworkingeighthours,sixdaysaweek.Theprojectisonschedule,soitsnotsobad.It'stemporary.HecomplainsabittoAsja.Thedeadlineforendingthecrunchcomesandgoes.Andanother.Thenthehoursgetlonger.Benjaminisworkingtwelvehours,sixdaysaweek.Benjamin'sbargraphsslideintothered.Thentherealcrunchtimebegins.Benjaminisworkingsevendaysaweek,"withtheoccasionalSaturdayeveningoffforgoodbehavior."044.Youcouldbeforgivenforthinkingthisisjustagame,butitissomebody'slife-asreportedinawidelycirculatedtextwrittenbyEASpouse.EA,orElectronicArts,isagamecompanybestknownforitsMaddensportsgames,butwhichalsowhichownsMaxis,whichmakesTheSims.EA'sslogan:ChallengeEverything-everythingexceptEA,ofcourse
-orthegapbetweengameandgamespace.Inthegamespaceofcontemporarylabor,thingsarenotlikethemeasuredprogressionuptheranksofTheSims.InTheSims,BenjamincouldworkhiswayfromGameDesignertoInformationOverlordmuchthesamewayashehadworkedupthelevelsbelow.AtElectronicArts,thingsaredifferent.BeinganInformationOverlordlikeEA'sLarryProbstrequiresanarmyofBenjaminswithnothingtoworkwithbuttheirskillsasgamedesignersandnowheretogothantoanotherfirmwhichmayormaynotcrunchitsworkersjustashard.Asthemilitaryentertainmentcomplexconsolidatesintoahandfulofbigfirms,itsqueezesoutallbutafewnicheplayers.Gamespaceishereapoorimitationofitsowngame.045.Startoveragain:ThistimeBenjaminbeginsasaBucketRunner.HequicklyworkshimselfuptoColtanMiner.Coltan?Whatiscoltan?QuitTheSimsforamoment.PopthecoveroffyourPlaystationoryourlaptoporcellphone.Youarelookingatstuffthathascomefromallovertheworld-broughttogetherbyagloballogistics.InthegutsofyourmachineyoumayspotsomecapacitorsmadebyKemet,ormaybesemiconductorsfromIntel.Theseprobablycontaintantalum,amarvelousconductorofelectricity,alsoverygoodwithheat.Theywerequitepossiblymadewithcoltan(shortforcolumbite-tantalite)dugoutofthegroundintheCongo,wherethere'splentyofcoltan,fromwhichtantalumisrefined.TheOkapiFaunalReserveintheCongoishometogorillas,monkeysandelephantsaswellastheokapi,ararerelativeofthegiraffe.ThousandsofMbuti,orpygmies,alsolivethere.Theirlivelihoodiscompromisedbythecoltanminers,whodigwhatonejournalistcalled"SUV-sizedholes"inthemud,outofwhich
theycanextractaboutakiloofcoltanaday.Akiloofcoltanwasworth$80duringthetechnologyboom.Therewasaworldshortageofthestuff,whichevendelayedthereleaseoftheSonyPlaystation2.046.TheCongoisarguablytheregioninwhichthe'greatgame'ofcolonialexploitationhasdonethemostharmandconferredtheleastbenefits.TheCongo'sfirstdemocraticleader,PatriceLumumba,wasoustedinaCIAsponsoredcoupthatbroughttopowerthenotoriousMobutuSeseSeku.WiththecollapseoftheMobuturegime,therewascivilwar,andlittleelse.Oneofthethingsthatkeptthecivilwargoingwasthecoltan.Coltanbothfueledthewar,andacceleratedthedestructionofwildlifehabitats.Andsothemilitaryentertainmentcomplex,withpreciousbrandstoprotect,didn'twantprotestmovementssullyingtheirreputationsbycallingattentiontoallthegorillascoltankills,ortheguerrillasitfeeds.Themilitaryentertainmentcomplexwouldliketobelieve,andwouldlikeyoutobelieve,thatgamespaceisnotaNietzschianstruggleofnakedforces,beyondgoodandevil,butaclean,welllighted,rule-governedgame.047."KemetrequiresitssupplierstocertifythattheircoltanoredoesnotoriginatefromCongoorborderingcountries."Motorolasaysmuchthesame:"Webelievewehavedoneasmuchasanyreasonablecompanycoulddobymandatingcompliancefromoursuppliersonthisimportantissue."OutiMikkonen,communicationsmanagerforenvironmentalaffairsatNokiaisalittlemoresanguine:"Allyoucandoisask,andiftheysayno,webelieveit."ThebadpublicityaroundCongocoltanisgoodnewsfortheAustraliancompanySonsofGwalia,whichprovidesmuchoftheworldsupply.ThedestructionofAustr
alianhabitatsseemssomehowlesspicturesque.Nogorillasorgiraffesareinvolved.Thisisthewayitsplayedingamespace.It'sallseparatecaves,withdimreportsofeachother.Byallmeans,savethegorillasandokapi,butitdoesn'tchangetheequation.048.Thelinethatconnectsgamespacetogamealsodividesonefromtheother.There'snogettingawayfromthematerialsthatmakeitpossibletoownaPlaystationconsoleoracomputerwithIntelInside.There'snogettingawayfromthelaborthatmakesitpossibletorunTheSimsonyourmachine.Benjamin:"Thereisnodocumentofculturewhichisnotatthesametimeadocumentofbarbarism."Benjamin(theSim):"Thereisnorealmofthepuredigitwhichdoesnotbetraythehandmarkedwithmuckandblood,somewhere."Andyetthewholepointofagameisitsseparation,thelinedividingitfromgamespaceandenclosingitinaselfcontained,algorithmicworldofitsown.ToBenjamin-theBenjaminwhoisaSim-everythingoutsideTheSimsisjustmetaphysics.Thedoublerelationofallegoryandallegorithmisanintimatelinealternatelyconnectingandseparatinggamefromgamespace.049.TheSimsisaverypeculiarkindofgame,inwhicheverydaylifeisthesubjectofplay,butwhereplayisnothingbutwork.Andyetthere'sadifferencebetweenplayingameandgamespace,whichpermitstheformertoofferanallegoryforthelatter,anallegorywhichmayfunctionasescapeandcritiqueofgamespace,perhapsevenasanalmostutopianalternative.Inthegame,unlikeingamespace,thecontestbetweengamerandgameisovernothing.Therearenopreciousminerals.Thereisnolaborcontractindispute.Thedifferencebetweenplayanditsothermayhavecollapsed,butthereisstilladi
fferencebetweenplaywithintheboundsofanalgorithmthatworksimpersonally,thesameforeverybody,andagamespacethatappearsasnothingbutanagonforthewilltopower-whetherofguerrilla'sgraspingtheirgunstocks,orLarryProbstgraspinghisstockoptions.IfitisachoiceonlybetweenTheSimsasarealgameandgamespaceasagameofthereal,thegamerchoosetostayinTheCave(tm)andplaygames.Thecontradictionisthatfortheretobeagamethatisfairandrationalthereisstillagamespacewhichisneither.050.Thegameiswhatgamespaceisn't,particularlyforthoseforwhomitisthedominantculturalform.EASpousewrites:"Webothhavebeensteepedinessentiallygameculturefromanearlyage,andwewatchedthat'culture'gainlegitimacyaswegottothepointofthinkingaboutourfuturecareers."Thegamespaceofmakinggamesascommoditiescannotliveuptothegamesthemselves.OnEASpouse'swebsite,someforlorngamerhaswritten,andperhapsagaininvain:"Onthesimesbustenoutpleasedonotmakeameterfortheitemsyoubuy.Samewithwallsoraninythingeles.Sobottomlinenometterinanyofthesimesgameseveragainplease.Thankyouifyoudoit."But,sadly,themeterisalwaysrunning.Itisintegraltogamespace,ifnotnecessarilytowhatmakesgamespacepossible.Beyondthecritiqueofactuallyexistinggamespace,gamescanpointalsotoanalmostutopianpromise,inwhichgamesaresomethingelseagain.Butwhilethegameopenstowardnewworlds,gamespaceforeclosesanythingbutitsownrelentlessagon.America(onCivilizationIII)Fig.3051.Ofwhatuseisthepasttoagamer?PeterLunenfeld:"Forthemostpart,itsblood,mischiefandroleplayingthatgamersrevelin.Theyliveinanalte
rnativeuniverse,asolipsisticonescriptedbydesignerswhoseframeofreferenceextendsnofurtherbackthanPong,Pac-ManandDungeonsandDragons.ThevisualandstorylinetropesthatmostofusbringwithusasculturalbaggageareÉallbutforgottenancestralmemories,thrownoff,onpurpose,toocumbersometobeofanyuse."Inthisnewworldthatappearsindifferenttohistory,withonlyhallsoffameforitschampions,chroniclesofitsbigbattlesandchartsofitsgreatesthits,accountingforhowthisdigitalgamespacecameintobeingpresentssomethingofachallenge.Perhapsitisbesttoapproachitinitsownstyle,asaseriesoflevels,eachofwhichappearstothegameronbattlingthroughtotheendofthelast.Ifoneisdefeated,onestartsover.Butremember:thesearethegrindlevels.Thegoingishardhere,evenalittleboring.Youmayneedtoattemptitmorethanonce.Ingamespace,timeismeasuredindiscreteandconstantunits,andwhileonecannotalwayswinalevel,onecanalwaysstartoveranddoitagain.052.Clicktostart.Hereisanewworld.Thefirstlevelopensontoatopic(fromtheGreek'topos',orplace).Hereatopicisaplacebothonthegroundandwithinlanguage.JacquesDerrida:"Thethemes,thetopics,the(common-)places,inarhetoricalsense,arestrictlyinscribed,comprehendedeachtimewithinasignificantsite."Onecanplaceone'sfootonatopicbecauseonecanplaceone'stongueonit.Oronecanpointtowarditandsay:"thereitisÉ".Allaroundthetopicitisdark,unknown,unmapped,withoutstories.Movearoundabitandyoubumpintoothers,fromothertribes,othersettlements.Viaothersonelearnsofstillothers.Thetopicsstarttoconnect.Amapforms.Oncethereisamap,therei
sthetopographic,whichtraceslinesthatconnectthetopics,andwhichdoublesthetopicalwiththespaceofmapsandtexts.Theseoutlinethecontoursinspaceandtimeofwhatwasthetopical,redrawingandrewritingitasacontinuousandhomogenousplane.Thelinesofthetopicaretracedintothepage;thelinesonthepagearetracedbackontotheearthastopography.Historyisastoryandgeographyanimageofthistopography,inwhichtheboundariesareforeverbeingexpandedandredrawn.Thisplaybetweenthetopicalandtopographicisthefirstlevel.053.Inthefirstlevel,everytopicalfeaturethatresistsinscriptionasacontinuousspaceiserasedandreplaced.Impassablemountainsyieldtheirpassages,joiningonceseparatetopics.Everyrecalcitrantpeoplewithitsownindigenoustoposisexterminatedandforgotten.JamesFenimoreCooper:"Inashorttimetherewillbenoremainsoftheseextraordinarypeople,inthoseregionsinwhichtheydweltforcenturies,buttheirnames."Thenamespersist,onmaps,orinbookswithtitleslikeTheLastoftheMohicans.Thefirstlevelisthisdissolutionofthetopicalintothetopographic,whereanoralloreiserasedandreplacedbyinscription:Linesonmaps,linesonpages;linesthatevolvefromtrailtorail.Thefirstleveliswherethetopographicunfoldsasthelinebetweenwhatischartedandwhatisuncharted.(SeeFig.3)Thestorylinedwellsbetweentheautonomyofthetopicalandtheauthorityofthetopographical,alwayslaggingbehind.054.Inthecinema,mappingandwritingmeet.Theemergenceofthetopographicanditsstruggletosubsumethetopicalbecomesthegreatthemeofwesterngenre,aboveallofthedirectorJohnFord.JimmyStewart,thefrontier
lawyer,bringingthewildwesttobook,runsupagainsttheoutlawgunslingerLeeMarvin.WhenStewartshootshiminashowdown,Stewartbecomesalegend,andasenator.OnlyitwasJohnWayne,thehonorableoutlaw,whoreallyfiredthefatalshot.InTheManWhoShotLibertyValence,cinemafunctionsastheformthatcanrevealretrospectivelytheworkingsoftopography,itscreationofastorylinethatjustifiestheimpositionofthethinbluelineofthelaw.Thecompletionofthetopographicisthesubjectoffilmnoir.Herethetopographichasconnectedallofspaceinaloosenetwork,andonecannotrunbeyondthefrontiertoescapeit.Oneescapeswithin,lookingforill-lit,interstitialtopics,liketherailyardsandwholesalemarketsofJulesDassin'sThievesHighway.Here,onthe'wrongsideofthetracks'thereisstillaspaceforillicitdesire,andanescapefromboredom.055.Whatclosesthefrontierforfreeactionistheenclosureofthespaceofmovementwithinaspaceofcommunication.Thelinesplits,intoonethatmovesobjectsandsubjects,andanother,fasteronethatmovesinformation,thelineoftelesthesia,ofthetelegraphthentelephone.InHighNoon,SheriffGaryCooperlearnsthroughthetelegraphthathislawlessnemesisarrivesonthemiddaytrain.InTheNakedCity,thispoweroftelesthesia-perceptionatadistance-iseverywhere.Thepolice,forensics,thecoronerareallbroughttogetherviatheswitchboardoperator,enablingandovercomingadivisionoflaborwiththetelephone,andcompactingspaceintoatemporalevent.Weseethepolicemanmakeacall,theoperatormakingtheconnection,andthecallbeinganswered.Telesthesiaallowsthespeedingupandcoordinationofmovementalonga
llotherlines,settingtherailwaytimetablesbywhichvastarmiesofgoodsorsoldiersmaybemobilized.Telesthesiamakespossiblethecompletionoftopographicspace,wherevastterritoriesarecoordinatedwithintheboundsoftheline.Astelesthesiadevelops,fromtelegraphtotelephonetotelevisiontotelecommunications,topographicspacedeepensandhardens,butalwayswithgapsandexclusions.FilmNoirdwellsinagapbetweenthefreeactinanunmarkedspaceandtheimpositionoftheline.Youcanrunbutyoucan'thide.056.Eventually,eventheoutofthewaytopicwithinthetopographicismappedandstoried.InDassin'sNightandtheCity,madeinpoliticalexileinLondon,thewholeofspacehasbecometelegraphic.Thereisnoescape.Thiscompletesthefirstlevel.Topologybeginswhenthetopicalceasestohaveanyautonomy,whenthelinealongwhichcommunicationflowsclosesthegapbetweenmapandterritory.Theopenfrontierisenclosedinafieldofcalculation.Historyandgeographyceasetodwellbetweenthetopicalandthetopographical,alwaysrushingtokeepup.Historyandgeographyaresubsumedwithinatopology,whichtendstowardsacontinuousfieldofequivalentandexchangeablevalues,instantlycommunicableeverywhere.Wherethetopicalwasonceboundedwithinthelinesofthetopographical,itisnowconnectedalongthelinesofthetopological.Thefixedgeometryoftopographygiveswaytothevariableformsoftopology,inwhichthelinesconnectingpointstogetherlendthemselvestotransformationwithoutrupturefromoneshapetoanother.Thestorylineofoutwardmovementiscomplete;thegamespaceofinteriorplaycommences.Welcometothesecondlevel.057.FilmNoircomest
oanendwhenitisnolongerpossibletoimagineanythinggreatbutevillurkingoutofbounds.Ifsomethingpassesundetectedforanylengthoftimeitisbecauseithasnovalue.Theeraofthegreatopenlydeclaredvillainsisover.Intopologicaltimes,thebadguyspassasnormalorcorruptthelaw.Cinemaasthemachineforimaginingtheopenspaceoutsidethelineisconsignedtothepast.Topologyannouncesitsnewambitionsthroughradioandparticularlytelevision,asignalforeverywhereandnowhere,potentiallyinterestedinanyoneoranywhere,aCandidCamera.Thekeygenresforworkingoutthesubsumptionofthetopographicintothetopologicalarethesituationcomedyandthegameshow.Onagameshow,anyonecanbetakenoutofeverydaylifeandbroughtintothemagiccircleoftelevision;onasitcom,televisioncanextenditselftotheeverydaylifefamiliartotheaverageviewer,anywhere.Sitcomandgameshowannouncethecomingofatopologyinwhichallofspacemightbedoubledsimultaneously,withoutlag,bylinesofimage,linesofsound,whichasyetstillbroadcastoutofcentralnodes.Thelinesrunonlyonewayandindiscriminately,butincorporatesanyoneandanythingofvalue.Whatisexcluded,fromitspointofview,hasnovalue.Theromanceoftheoutsiderisdead.058.Whatcompletestopologyandpreparesitforthenext-unknown-leveliswhenthelinesplitsagain,intoanaloganddigital.Theanaloglinesofradioandtelephoneandtelevisiongivewaytodigitallines,whichreachbacktotheprecedentofthetelegraph,butextenditsdigitalcodetoanincreasinglyflexibleandallembracingwebofcommunicationlines.Gradually,thedigitalextendsandexpandstothewholeoftelesthesia.Theinterne
tincorporatestext,sound,images,thenmovingimages.Thecyberspaceoftheinternetbecomesmobileandportableandturnsintothecellspaceofmobiletelephony.Thiscombinationofthespeedoftelesthesiawiththedigitalcodeiswhatmakespossibleavastandinclusivetopologyofgamespace.Thisisthethirdlevel:TheworldoftopologyistheworldofTheCave(tm).Anyandeveryspaceisanetworkoflines,pulsingwithdigitaldata,onwhichplayersactandreact.Inworkandplay,itisnotthenovel,notcinema,nottelevisionthatoffersthelinewithinwhichtograsptheformofeverydaylife,itisthegame.JulianDibbell:"Éinthestrangenewworldofimmaterialitytowardwhichtheenginesofproductionhavelongbeendrivingus,wecannowatlastmakeoutthecontoursofamorefamiliarrealmoftheinsubstantial--therealmofgamesandmakebelieve."059.Ifthenovel,cinemaortelevisioncanrevealthroughtheirparticularsanallegoryoftheworldthatmakesthempossible,thegamerevealssomethingelse.Forthereader,thenovelproducesallegoryassomethingtextual.Theworldofpossibilityistheplayofthelinguisticsign.Forthecineaste,theworldofpossibilityisaplayoflightandshade.Forthegamer,thegameproducesallegoryassomethingalgorithmic.Theworldofpossibilityistheworldinternaltothealgorithm.So:apassagefromthetopictothetopographic,mediatedbythenovel;apassagefromthetopographictothetopological,mediatedbytelevision;apassage,mediatedbythegame,fromthetopologicaltoasyetunknownspaces,apointwherethegamerseemstobestuck.Isitreallythecasethatthegamermerelyrevelsinbloodmischiefandroleplaying?Oristhereadeeperunderstandingofthe
cavethatcanbehadfromgamingwithinit?060.Startoverwithanothernewworld.(Thistimewithalittlegamertheory.)Welcometothefirstlevel:Thenovelisalineofacertaintype,whichopenstowardscertainpossibilities,astoryline.Itarisesatthemomentwhentopicgiveswaytotopography.ForGeorgLuk‡cs,whatistobevaluedisthehistoricalnovelanditsabilitytotracealineacrossanhistoricalmomentandrevealtheforcesatworkinit."Itistheportrayalofthebroadlivingbasisofhistoricaleventsintheirintricacyandcomplexity,intheirmanifoldinteractionwithactingindividuals."Thehistoricalnovelshowshistoricaleventsthroughsecondarycharacters,perhapsnotunlikethereader,andanhistoricaleventasbeingatthesametimeatransformationofeverydaylife.Andyetthenovelsuffersfromthisparadox:Toilluminatethetopographic,thenovelhastohideitsownform.Ifitexploresthepossibilitiesofthelinewithinitspagesitopensitselftoa'formalism'thatleavesthereaderbehind.061.Thefirstlevelcontinues:Cinemaisalineofacertaintype,whichopenstowardscertainpossibilities,anilluminationofthedarkcornersoftopography.ForWalterBenjamin,whatistobevaluedisthe'opticalunconscious',cinema'smachinicvisionofaworldthatisitselfmachinedwithadensegridoflines.Cinemacanexpandorshrinkspace,extendorcompresstime,itcancuttogetherimagesofdiversescalesorforms-intimationsoftopology.Itcreatesa'Spielraum',aplayroom,fordividingupthemachineworldotherwise.ContraLuk‡cs,Benjaminopenstowardstheformalpropertiesofthelineattheexpenseofitsrepresentationofanhistoricalsituationasatotality.Butwhatdoesn
'tchangeisthatthespectator,likethereader,isexternaltothelineitself.Cinemacanshowhowtheworldismadethroughitscutsandmontages,anindustrialprocesswiththeuniquequalityofshowingitselfasworks.Yetthereisstillaseparationbetweenthosemakingthecinemaandthosewatchingit.062.Thefirstlevelends:Thenovellanguishes.Cinemafailstorealizeitsallegoricalpotential.GuyDebord:"Butthislifeandthiscinemaarebothequallypaltry;andthatiswhyyoucouldactuallyexchangeonefortheotherwithindifference."Boredomreigns.063.Thesecondlevelbegins:Radioisalineofacertaintype,whichopenstowardscertainpossibilities.ForBrecht,whatistobevaluedinitisacertainunrealizedpotentialforthelinetopointbothways:"Radioisone-sidedanditshouldbetwo.Itispurelyanapparatusfordistribution,formeresharingout.Sohereisapositivesuggestion:changethisapparatusoverfromdistributiontocommunication.Theradiowouldbethefinestpossiblecommunicationapparatusinpubliclife,avastnetworkofpipes.Thatistosay,itwouldbeifitknewhowtoreceiveaswellastransmit,howtoletthelistenerspeakaswellashear,howtobringhimintoarelationshipinsteadofisolatinghim."Radiocouldbelikeapublictelephony.Butitisallanalogflow;itlacksadigitalcode.Itradiatesfromonepointtoeveryother,withoutdistinction.Itlacksthetransformationalgeometryoftopology,whereanythreespecificpointscouldbeconnected,anywhere,andstillmakethesame'triangle'connectingsenderandreceiverandthethird'line'-telesthesiaitself.064.Thesecondlevelcontinues.Televisionexpandsthelineofradio,butdoesitaddmuchtoit?Doesity
ieldmuchbywayofaspaceofpossibility?FredricJameson:"Theblockageoffreshthinkingbeforethissolidlittlewindowagainstwhichwestrikeourheadsbeingnotunrelatedtopreciselythatwholeortotalflowweobservethroughit."Televisiongeneralizesthelineofcommunicationasananalogflow.Thedigitalhasnotyetprevailed.065.Thesecondlevelends:Thetensionbetweenthetopographicandtopologicalisalsoonebetweenadecliningsphereofrepresentation,willandinterest,andoneofanewtoposthatisstatistical,dig